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.It s debat-able whether they deserve the title of  hooligan. They seldom commit serious of-fenses, and most of their activities are limited to taunting the supporters of the rivalclub (Bogaerts et al., 2003).Football firms are organized gangs (mostly supporting afootball club) that engage in fights with rival firms (firms supporting other clubs).Tomake it hard for the police to interrupt, fights usually take place on sites far awayfrom the football grounds.Some football firms are occasionally linked with extremeright-wing political groups, especially in Southern and Eastern Europe.Ultras aresimilar to firms.These groups started in Italy, where Italian fans created a fanaticalbrand of football supporters, now a major force in the Italian game and other Euro-pean countries as well.Football HooligansAlthough football hooligans are a heterogeneous group, most, in fact, are malesbetween the age of twelve and thirty, native, and lower class (Van der Vliet, 2003).Almost all of the hard-core hooligans have been detained multiple times for footballviolence, for violent , and for traffic offenses.A great number of the older ones haveboring and frustrating jobs.Most hooligans have attained only a low level of educa-tion and sometimes one or both of their parents have been hooligans.Many mem-bers of the hard core grow up in a social environment (family, school, neighborhood)where aggression is already a part of daily life.They typically possess a lot of  streetknowledge and know how to  survive. But being a hooligan gives them addedstatus, arguably more than they could achieve at school or in other domains (Van derTorre and Spaaij, 2003).References/Suggested Readings: Bogaerts, S., Spapens, A.C.and Bruinsma, M.Y.2003.Debal of de man? Profielen van verdachten van voetbal gerelateerde geweldscriminaliteit.Tilburg:IVA Tilburg; Centraal Informatiepunt Voetbalvandalisme (CIV).2001.Jaarverslag voetbal-seizoen 2000/2001.Utrecht; Dunning, E.G., Murphy, P.J., and Williams, J.M.1988.The Roots52 FRENCH GANGSof Football Hooliganism: A Historical and Sociological Study.London: Routledge; Elsea, M.2003.Football Hooliganism.Bulletin of the International Society for Research on Aggres-sion, 25 (2), 24 26; Ferwerda, H., Beke, B, and Wijk, A., Van.1998.Kwaliteit op en rondomhet voetbalveld; naar een integrale aanpak van onveiligheidsproblemen.Arnhem, Advies- enOnderzoeksgroep Beke; Haley, A.J.and Johnston, B.S.Menaces to Management: A Develop-mental View of British Soccer Hooligans, 1961 1986.Available online at www.thesportjournal.org/vol1no1/menaces.htm; Junger-Tas, J.1985.De theorie van sociale con-trole of sociale binding.Tijdschrift voor de criminologie, 27, 242 265; Limbergen, K.Van,and Walgrave, L.1988.Sides, Fans en Hooligans; voetbalvandalisme: feiten, achtergrondenen aanpak.Leuven; Poutvaara, P., and Priks, M.2005.Hooligans.Available online at www.diw.de/english; Torre, E.J.Van Der, and Spaaij, R.F.J.2003.Hooligan-aanwas: patronen enpreventie.Tijdschrift voor de politie, 64 (4), 29 33; Torre, E.J.Van Der, and Spaaij, R.F.J.2003.Harde kern hooligans: verder dan geweld Tijdschrift voor de politie, 64 (7/8), 28 33;Vliet, L.L.van der.2003.De kick is niet te beschrijven: Een onderzoek naar de achtergrondenen kenmerken van de nieuwe aanwas risicosupporters en hoe sociaalpreventief op deze groepkan worden ingespeeld.Unpublished thesis; Vries, H.de.1998.Verklaringen van voetbalva-ndalisme.Tijdschrift voor de politie, 60 (5), 19 24; Williams, J., and Wagg, S.1991.BritishFootball and Social Change: Getting into Europe.Leicester: Leicester University Press.CHABELI MIRALLES SUEIROFRENCH GANGS.In France,  street subcultures have a history that can be tracedback to the 1960s with the  black jackets (blousons noirs), and the hooligans ofthe 1970s (loubards).These groups had common features such as collective forms ofsociability, language, and attitude; anti-social tendencies reflected in intra-group andinter-group conflicts (i.e., against rival groups called bastons and the police); acts ofdelinquency including vandalism and robbery; and general status offenses includingtruancy; the consumption of beer and drugs; listening to rock music; and ridingmotorcycles.Such characteristics of these subcultures were associated with male vi-rility, which allowed the loubards, for example, to acquire sufficient symbolic capitalto create a (dis)valued social identity.The culture milieu of these groups was a placewhere one learned virile behavior and prepared oneself for factory work.The mem-bership in such groups was temporary and ended when the members started work,did their military service, or got married.The members physical strength was trans-formed into the ability to labor and the culture of the street was replaced by theculture of the factory.In the late 1980s, other organized groups of youths emerged, some of which werebased on  ethnicity. These groups were vehicles for black males (such as the ViciousSharks, Requins Vicieux, or the Black Dragons) to become involved in different de-linquent activities, fi ghts against other rival groups, and to become engaged in hip-hop.Such groups, however, were an ephemeral phenomenon inspired by Americangangs and were nothing compared to the latter, lacking their deep historical originsand level of organizational sophistication [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]